The Poetry of Hafez and Saadi and Shab Zarif in the Light of Intertextuality

Analyzing and comparing texts within the fields of criticism and theory is considered one of the innovative and practical research methods. In this context, the theory of intertextuality holds significant interest for critics of both classical and contemporary works, as it is closely related to comparative literature. The main challenge in the theory of intertextuality is to identify the similarities between texts. Scholars of this theory argue that a text is never closed; rather, texts engage in a dialogue with one another, and no text exists without a pretext. Every text is created based on previous texts; therefore, adapting the literary works of different nations may lead to the discovery of common themes among poets' works. Hafez and Saadi are two renowned Persian lyric poets and among the most famous poets in the world. Their works often explore romantic themes. Another notable poet is the Arab lyricist who lived in the 7th century; he is considered elegant and contemporary with Saadi, and predates Hafez. The main theme in his diwan is love, focusing on expressing the emotions of both the lover and the beloved.
His poems share various thematic similarities with the sonnets of Hafez and the general themes found in Saadi's works. These include motifs such as the lover's imprudence, the faithfulness of promises, the lover's tears, the meeting of lover and beloved, and parting. These similarities may stem from the intellectual connection among the three poets or from a shared tradition of influence. We are not attempting to prove any of these cases; however, in this essay, using Kristova's theory of intertextuality, we have analyzed and examined some of the similarities in Shab Zarif's themes with those of Saadi and Hafez. We have provided examples demonstrating the unity and convergence of their themes and uncovered the shared ideas among these three poets. Hafez and Saadi have similar themes across four types of poems: romantic, mystical, romantic-mystical, and social themes. Among these, romantic themes occur most frequently. 
Introduction:
Intertextuality has been one of the most prevalent and extensively studied topics in literary criticism over the past century, attracting significant attention from numerous scholars. Since its inception, this theory has fascinated researchers and critics alike and is widely employed to analyze textual similarities. Moreover, this approach is not limited to literature; it is applied across various artistic and cultural fields, including non-literary texts. Intertextuality examines the relationships and similarities between two or more texts. This theory was developed by identifying these connections, which may occur among works by the same author or within the same language, as well as among texts from different cultures, sometimes involving varying degrees of influence or adaptation. There are numerous thematic similarities between Persian and Arabic literature, some of which have been studied and analyzed. However, an extensive path still lies ahead for researchers in the fields of literary criticism and comparative literature.
In general and comprehensive terms, the theory of intertextuality states that literature is not created in a vacuum. No text is solely the product of a writer's creative mind; rather, every text has pretexts. Writers and poets compose their works based on knowledge acquired through study, and whether they intend to or not, their studies influence their work. This results in texts sharing similarities and engaging in a dialogue with one another. Discovering these similarities is fascinating and enhances our understanding of the texts. Sometimes, writers and poets develop a single theme—whether intentionally or unintentionally—and this is one of the most prominent features of comparative literature. Intertextuality and comparative literature share common origins. Comparative literature is a relatively young discipline that originated in France and quickly established itself within the literary traditions of various nations. It has now existed for nearly two centuries. One key area of interest for scholars in this field is the exploration of similarities in ideas among writers and poets from different linguistic and geographical backgrounds. This focus has, whether intentionally or unintentionally, led to the identification of common themes across the literatures of diverse cultures.
A literary text originates from the inner feelings and emotions of the writer or poet and flows through their pen. The study and knowledge of its creator, combined with their emotions give rise to a literary work, which may encompass one or more distinct themes. Sometimes, writers and poets create a single theme—whether intentionally or unintentionally, knowingly or unknowingly—which is one of the most prominent features of comparative literature. This fundamental-applied research is based on Kristeva's theory of intertextuality. First, we extracted and translated verses from the Divan Shab-e-Zarif that share similar themes with the poems of Hafez and Saadi, presenting them in twenty comparative entries. We have attempted to include examples from both renowned Persian ghazal poets whenever possible; however, in some instances, we found similar themes represented by only one of these poets.
To practically demonstrate the theory of intertextuality and the similarities between texts, in some entries, we have not only identified themes from Saadi's general works and Hafez's ghazals but also included examples from the works of other poets. This article features the words of two renowned Persian poets and one Arabic poet, all of whom have expressed their thoughts on love—what God created humanity and the universe for. Love is a divine gift that never grows old.
The quality of the expression of love in the works of these three poets varies, yet many of their themes share notable similarities. In this article, we explore and analyze these common themes. The subtle allure of love evokes feelings and moods in all humans, regardless of culture or language. However, poets and writers from different nations respond to and perceive love in unique ways, each expressing it distinctively.
Hafez, Saadi, and Shab Zarif are all romantic poets. Shab Zarif was a contemporary version of Saadi and preceded Hafez historically. He is also known as the poet of love and ghazal. Regarding the quality of love in Hafez's Divan, Saadi's general works, and the verses translated from Shab Zarif, the following observations can be made: Shab Zarif predominantly portrays the earthly lover in his ghazals, whose themes reflect pure and innocent feelings, although these emotions are not yet fully matured in love. In Shab's poems, there is little indication of attachment. He remains in eternal waiting, mostly in the initial stage of love. When describing the lover's state of mind toward the beloved, Shab often portrays an indifferent lover who is not eager to win the beloved's affection, unlike Saadi and Hafez, whose beloved is cherished, respected, and is in the position of affection.
Shab's themes are limited to a few specific subjects, such as alcohol, imagery involving the bow and arrow (symbolizing the lover's eyes and eyebrows), descriptions of the beloved's body, the morning breeze, insomnia, the lover's reproach, and his rejection of advice. ShabZarif is highly skilled in both verbal and spiritual arts. Hafez and Saadi are also considered the foremost figures in Persian literature and are the undisputed masters of Persian poetry. According to researchers, ShabZarif's poetic style is as simple as Saadi's, yet his themes are often complex and difficult to understand. Hafez's poetry, as well as Saadi's works in "Bustan" and "Golestan" and occasionally in his ghazals, contain elements of didactic literature. However, Shab is primarily a ghazal singer, and his divan shows little evidence of didactic literature. Thematically, Hafez shares a closer similarity with this Arabic-speaking poet than Saadi does.
The comparative entries discussed in this article take three forms: some are shared between Hafez and ShabZarif, with the primary common themes being the morning breeze and the roles both poets assign to this natural element; most entries are common to all three poets; and some are shared between Saadi and Shab Zarif. In concluding the categorization of themes based on their subject matter, we have identified four categories, which may sometimes overlap: romantic themes, mystical themes, social themes, and alcoholism. In this article, we explore thematic similarities among these poets by applying Kristeva's theory of intertextuality and citing evidence from the Divan of Shab Zarif, the ghazals of Hafez, and the works of Saadi.
Method:
This fundamental applied research is based on Kristova's theory of intertextuality. Accordingly, we have extracted and translated verses from Shab Zarif's Divan that share themes with the poems of Hafez and Saadi, presenting them in 20 comparative entries. To practically demonstrate the theory of intertextuality and the similarities between texts, in some sections, we have not only identified themes from Saadi's general works and Hafez's lyrical poems but also included examples from the works of other poets.
Results and Discussion:
This research has several notable achievements. First, it is based on one of the widely used theories in literary criticism, namely intertextuality. Second, it focuses on a branch of literature known as comparative literature. Within this framework, we translated selected verses from Divan Shab Zarif and compared certain poems by Hafez and Saadi. Third, by examining thematic similarities, we have effectively demonstrated the theory of intertextuality through examples from three classical literary texts. Fourthly, in what ways are the verses of these three lyric poets similar: Romantic, mystical, romantic-mystical, and social? This article presents a method for analyzing non-synonymous texts within the fields of literary criticism and comparative literature.
Conclusion:
In this research, using the theory of intertextuality, we present evidence of thematic similarities between Shabzarif's Divan and the Divans of Hafez and Saadi's Koliat. ShabZarif is an Arab poet from the 7th century, and some of his verses closely align with the poems of Hafez and Saadi in terms of content. The common themes in Shab Zarif's work, shared with those of Hafez and Saadi, can be categorized into four aspects: romantic, mystical, mystical-romantic, and social-ethical. Among these, the "romantic" themes occur most frequently and often align with common Persian and Arabic themes. Some themes, however, are very rare and may reflect the unique relationship between this poet and Hafez and Saadi